doubtful whether the latter have yet made much of an impact in the district). Although admirable in theory, in practice this development strategy is illogical and runs contrary, I feel, to the ideology of integrated agricultural development. Fula herders do utilise the veterinary services and rely on inoculations to safeguard the health of their herds. I assume that the net result of these measures has been, and will continue to be, an increase in herd sizes. If environmental degradation is a real problem then, surely these measures must act to exacerbate erosion and over-grazing. Furthermore, as Goldschmidt observes:-"Pastoralists traditionally use some land in their pastoral pursuits that would, of itself, yield reasonably good crops. Though such small portions of land might be more productive as farmland than as grass and browse for livestock, taking it from pastoral use may have deleterious effects on the total range available to the people and may reduce the overall productive capacity. Such superior quality land within the pastoralists' domain is a fail-safe mechanism." (1981, p.109. And see p.115) 23) The provision of barbed wire to crop farmers had also taken place as part of the earlier Settlement Scheme. (Documents 106 and 108, 1958. File A/13, "Cattle Owners Settlement Scheme". Located at Kabala District Office.) 24) Details of this exchange are found in "cow damage to KIADP crops". See footnote 21. 25) The situation here accords with Horowitz and Little (1987) who argue that both states and financing organisations favour agriculture over herding: little, if anything, is done to retard the expansion of cultivation, despite its untoward ecological consequences. (p.63) They note that donors are less willing to invest in the livestock sector, (that is, apart from veterinary interventions) and that African administrators "tend to be drawn from ethnic groups whose roots are in farming rather than herding, and whose understandings and sympathies are biased towards sedentary life". (ibid, p.64) 26) And as Hart explains :-"It must be considered...that a plow is not just an instrument, like a radio or a bicycle, but part of a complex form of social organisation, involving craft specialists and animal control, which is not easily introduced into an established pattern of cultivation". (1982, p.75) 27) Of the 136 ox-owners working in the project area, 95 were Fula, 25 were Yalunka, 3 were Mandingo and 13 were Kuranko. By contrast, of the 35 farmers offered loans by the project during 1984, only 13 were Fula. (17 were Yalunka, 4 were Kuranko and 2 were Mandingo). 28) This process of standardisation began under the Protectorate, through a series of Ordinances enacted in 1901-5 and again during the 1930's. The transformation of traditional chiefdoms into "viable" administrative units often entailed amalgamation of chiefdoms. Between 1950 and 1963, the number of chiefdoms in Koinadugu District was reduced from 26 to 11. Clarke 1969 p.32. 29) Against this, it has been argued that factional rivalry at the chiefdom level has moderated the impact of tribal or regional based politics. (Tangri 1978, p.172 and passim. And see Allen 1978, p.200ff) I accept that this may be true in many areas of

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Sierra Leone and, perhaps, at certain levels of government. Nonetheless, "ethnicity" remains a potent political ideology and, it should be remembered, many intra-chiefdom dynastic or 'ruling house' rivalries may themselves be manifestations of ethnic identity. 30) Some accounts are to be found in File A)1982 Elections GE/1/4/77, located at Kabala District Office. 31) A note on the 1967 general election, based on Donald 1968. In 1967 the three Yalunka chiefdoms formed one parliamentary constituency, Koinadugu North. The three Yalunka chiefs were strong supporters of the ruling Sierra Leone Peoples Party (SLPP). The Fula were also SLPP supporters, regarding the opposition All Peoples Congress (APC) as "anti-Fula". The Yalunka electorate were divided in their support between the incumbent SLPP candidate and his APC opponent. The paramount chiefs and their close associates (older, well-to-do Yalunka) campaigned for the SLPP candidate, whilst younger Yalunka tended to be ardent APC supporters. The local campaign was "tribal in overtones" because the SLPP candidate was Mandingo, the APC candidate Yalunka. Donald notes:-"Most Yalunka speak as if the three chiefdoms are entirely Yalunka since they are the indigenous people and own the country- they do not verbalise or think significant the fact that the Yalunka make up less than 50% of the population of the area" (p.150-2) In the election the SLPP candidate won, receiving 59.6% of the 18,152 votes cast. It was the only victory by a SLPP candidate in a contested election in the Northern Province. 32) Memo from Police Officer commanding Koinadugu District to the District Officer. Dated June 1980. Document 78, File A13/01 Cattle Owner Settlement Scheme; areas and rents. Located at Kabala District Office. 33) Literally so, as Paramount Chief Alimamy Fana Thoronka II of Kasunko Chiefdom makes quite clear. In response to an invitation to a pre-electoral meeting from J.F.Mansarary, the incumbent member of parliament of Koinadugu West, Alimamy Fana writes to the District Officer:- "We have thought it fitting that we write and ask you to advise the Hon. Mansaray to first visit his area and have a decision of how we are going to receive and entertain the guests he has invited to our chiefdom, where he has not been seen for the past 4« years or since his election to Parliament" (Document no. 130. Dated 14.3.82. File A)1982 Elections.GE/1/4/77., located at Kabala District Office.) 34) Report dated 6th. July 1982. File A)1982 Elections. GE/1/4/77., located at Kabala District Office. 35) Moves made at the 'local level' to balance the interest of farmer and herder have, on occasions, run counter to policy directives from central government:-" Reports reaching this ministry indicate that certain paramount chiefs of Koinadugu District, in order to disrupt the peace and good order of the district have taken upon themselves to appoint Fullah Tribal headmen in their chiefdoms. If this is the case it is regrettable to say that it cuts completely across the spirit of government's intention in recognising District Fullah Tribal Headman" (sic). (Memorandum dated 5 Feb 1978. From

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Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Interior to Provincial Secretary, Northern Province. File Monthly reports on Tribal Headmen P/63. Located at Kabala District Office.

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